Branches Of Biology Essay Example for Free

Branches Of Biology Essay Levels of Organization Why do we need to learn about levels of organization? Helps us to understand how our world fits together Helps us to organize the structures of living systems and how they all work together 1. Organelles â€Å" little organs† Small structures inside of a cell that perform a specific function. Examples include mitochondria, nucleus, and Golgi body 2. Cell- Basic unit of structure function in life. Cells are the building blocks of all living things. 3. Tissue A group of the same kind of cells working together for a specific purpose 4. Organs A part of an organism made up of tissues that do a specific job. 5. Organ Systems A group of organs that work together for a specific job. 9. Organism Any living thing. 10. Population -A group of the same organism living together. This word is often used to describe the size of the group. 11. Community- Several populations living together and interacting in some way. 12. Ecosystem All the biotic communities plus all abiotic factors. MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY The word philosophy is derived from the Greek words philia (love) and sophia (wisdom) and means â€Å"the love of wisdom.† Pythagoras was said to have been the first man to call himself a philosopher; in fact, the world is indebted to him for the word philosopher. It is said that when Leon, the tyrant of Philius, asked him of who he was, he said, â€Å"a Philosopher† and he likened the Philosopher to spectators at ancient games. Before that time the wise men had called themselves a sage, which was interpreted to mean those who know. Pythagoras was more modest. He coined the word philosopher, which he defined as one who is attempting to find out. According to him, men and women of the world could be classified into 3 groups: (1. those that love pleasure) (2. those that love activity) and (3. those that love wisdom.) MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY. Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is the rational attempt to formulate, understand, and answer fundamental questions. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe, which are often held uncritically. We refer to this meaning as the informal sense of philosophy or â€Å"having† a philosophy. Usually when a person says â€Å"my philosophy is,† he or she is referring to an informal personal attitude to whatever topic is being discussed. 2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply held conceptions and beliefs. These two senses of philosophy— â€Å"having† and â€Å"doing†Ã¢â‚¬â€ cannot be treated entirely independent of each other, for if we did not have a philosophy in the formal, personal sense, then we could not do a philosophy in the critical, reflective sense. Having a philosophy, however, is not sufficient for doing philosophy. 3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole. Philosophy seeks to combine the conclusions of the various sciences and human experience into some kind of consi stent world view. Philosophers  wish to see life, not with the specialized slant of the scientist or the businessperson or the artist, but with the overall view of someone cognizant of life as a totality. 4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of words and concepts. . Certainly this is one function of philosophy. In fact, nearly all philosophers have used methods of analysis and have sought to clarify the meaning of terms and the use of language. Some philosophers see this as the main task of philosophy, and a few claim this is the only legitimate function of philosophy. 5. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest people and for which philosophers always have sought answers. Philosophy presses its inquiry into the deepest problems of human existence. Some of the philosophical questions raised in the past have been answered in a manner satisfactory to the majority of philosophers. Many questions, however, have been answered only tentatively, and many problems remain unsolved.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"What is truth?† â€Å"What is the distinction between right and wrong?† What is life and why am I here?   Why is there anything at all? IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY 1. The study of Philosophy enables us to think carefully and clearly about important issues. 2. In studying Philosophy, we learn to take a step back from our everyday thinking and to explore the deeper, bigger question which underpins our thought. 3. The focus in the study of Philosophy is to learn not what to believe, but how to think. 4. Studying philosophy sharpens your analytical abilities, enabling you to identify and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses in any position. 5. It hones your ability to construct and articulate cogent arguments of your own. 6. It prompts you to work across disciplinary boundaries and to think flexibly and creatively about problems which do not present immediate solutions. 7. Because philosophy is an activity as much a body of knowledge, it also develops your ability to think and work independently. BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Historically, philosophical concerns have been treated under these broad categories: 1. Logic, 2. Metaphysics, 3. Epistemology, 4. Value theory A. LOGIC Logic is the systematic study of the rules for the correct use of these supporting reasons, rules we can use to distinguish  good arguments from bad ones. Most of the great philosophers from Aristotle to the present have been convinced that logic permeates all other branches of philosophy. The ability to test arguments for logical consistency, understand the logical consequences of certain assumptions, and distinguish the kind of evidence a philosopher is using are essential for â€Å"doing† philosophy 12. B. METAPHYSICS Another traditional branch of Philosophy traditionally known as metaphysics. For Aristotle, the term metaphysics meant â€Å"first philosophy,† discussion of the most universal principles; later the term came to mean â€Å"comprehensive thinking about the nature of things.† It means, usually, the study or theory of reality. The question of metaphysics is: what is reality? What is real? Is reality some kind of â€Å"thing†. Is it one or is it many? If it is one, then how is it related to many things around us? Can ultimate reality be grasped by five senses, or is it supernatural or transcendent? Metaphysics undoubtedly is the branch of philosophy that the modern student finds most difficult to grasp. Metaphysics attempts to offer a comprehensive view of all that exists. It is concerned with such problems as the relation of mind to matter, the nature of change, the meaning of â€Å"freedom,† the existence of God, and the belief in personal immortality. 13. C. EPISTEMOLOGY The technical term for the theory of knowledge is epistemology, which comes from the Greek word episteme, meaning â€Å"knowledge.† In general, epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies the sources, nature, and validity of knowledge. ï‚â€" There are three central questions in this field: ï‚â€" (1) What are the sources of knowledge? Where does genuine knowledge come from or how do we know? This is the question of origins. ï‚â€" (2) What is the nature of knowledge? Is there a real world outside the mind, and if so can we know it? D. VALUE THEORY Value theory is the branch of philosophy that studies values. It can be subdivided into ethics, aesthetics, and social and political philosophy. In broad terms ethics concerns itself with the question of morality. What is right and what is wrong in human relations? Within morality and ethics there are three major areas: descriptive ethics, normative ethics, and metaethics. Descriptive ethics seeks to identify moral experience in a descriptive way.  We seek to identify, within the range of human conduct, the motives, desires, and intentions as well as overt acts themselves.

Collaborative working within the area of adult nursing

Collaborative working within the area of adult nursing For the focus of this essay I will be discussing the concept of collaborative working within the professional area of adult nursing. This essay will examine the definition and rationale of collaborative working, a small introduction to nursing and how collaboration is applied in this area of care. It will conclude by examining the influencing factors and outcomes of collaborative working in nursing practice. McCray,( 2007) defined collaboration as a respect for other professionals, service users and their skills and from this starting point, an agreed sharing of authority, responsibility and resources for specific outcomes or actions gained through cooperation and consensus (Hornby, Atkins, 2000). Collaboration may similarly be seen as a procedure by which associates of different disciplines distribute their skills and expertise to provide a better quality service to patients, clients and the service user. (Hughes, Hemingway Smith, 2005). As stated in the Nursing and Midwifery Council nurses must allow the people in your care must be able to trust you with their health and wellbeing NMC (2008). The role of a nurse is ever evolving, extensive and highly complex. To implement the position of a nurse in a hospital environment you must also retain a dynamic contact between your working environments and accompanying healthcare professionals. A nurse is not merely an onlooker but an activist who believes their active participation is required to generate an improved delivery of healthcare to each patient, whilst functioning as part of a team (Baillie et al, 1989). The Nurse-patient relationship has been referred to as the centre of all healthcare, as well a critical link between patients and other healthcare professionals (Berger Brinkman-Williams, 1999) A nurse plays an significant part in patient care, and is often the primary care giver and accountable for the admission, care planning and assessment of the patient. Their role is vital, and their communication is often a fundamental link amongst other members of the multidisciplinary team. Working collaboratively in nursing involves interaction of various group or organisations to achieve a common goal, which normally in the health care setting is the well being of the patient. As a consequence of problem solving, open, flexible approach to the roles and tasks of individual team members provide a more patient focused healthcare. Mutual respect and trust is crucial in relationship building (Kenny, 2002). In nursing it is essential to remember that the delivery of holistic care often involves the collaboration of other health care professionals, therefore this concept should be encouraged in order to facilitate the delivery of positive patient care. The Government recognises this and In 2001 The Department of Health (GB DOH) published a strategic framework for lifelong learning for the NHS, Working together, Learning Together Learning and development are key to delivering the Governments vision of patient centred care in the NHS. The plan of Lifelong learning is ensuring that the workforce, and organisations they relay to, and work in, can attain more knowledge and skills, equally to appreciate their potential and to assist changing things for the better. Lifelong learning is ultimately related to supporting the NHS workforce for the future and collaboration could play a major part in making this framework successful. DOH ( 2001) Collaborative working in health care is often referred to as interprofessional working (IPW). Rationale identified for collaborative working is the ability to cope with the problems that often exceed the capacity of any one profession (Hughes, Hemingway Smith, 2005). Barr (2000) suggests the success of interprofessional working rests upon each professional developing their individual identity and skills, then auctioning them. Positive collaborative practice, sharing valuable experience and expertise could improve levels of job satisfaction (Kenny 2002) It is not probable for each person to be successful at everything, however if professionals can distribute their knowledge, experience and expertise in the subject that they are most excellent in, this will in turn convey a multiple of skills combined together whilst assisting in confidence building and problem solving. Ultimately the consequence should allow the patient to contribute in producing a comprehensive and extensive care plan that will meet their every need. Laidler (1991) addressed this issue by recognising a professional will need to feel confident in their own specific role in order to share their knowledge and expertise amongst a multiprofessional team. Standards have been set by the NMC to safeguard the welfare of both the patient and the nurse. These standards recognise that the nurse must work with others to protect and promote the health and wellbeing of those in your care, their families and carers, and the wider community (NMC 2008). It has been said that to fully explore the place of the nurse in the multi professional team you must first understand the role of the nurse (McCray 2009). As the health care system expands and changes rapidly, the role of the nurse also changes, however the well being of the patient must at all times remain the main focus. A dedicated nurse will strive to develop good relationships with other professionals, especially when the care of a patient is the core focus. Collaborating effectively is often vital in the achieving a holistic healing process, this involves nurturing the patients biological psychological and social needs. Patient centred care (PCC) is a widely used model in the modern health care system; it places the patient at the centre of all care. PCC improves continuity of care and integration of health care professionals collaborating on behalf of their patient. (Pence, 1997) To be able to give a patient the best possible care it is imperative to work alongside other health care professionals, always respect skills, expertise and contributes of your colleagues. (NMC 2008) To employ this it is believed that nurses should have a mutual respect for all team members and that their significance is deemed equal, when contributing in team practice. Professional relationships can be classified as special created on trust and interdependency (Atwal, 1999) However, this may at times prove difficult as research has suggested that one of the barriers in collaborative working is differences in status, hierarchy a common term used. Surgeons and doctors have been described in certain circumstances as being unapproachable which frequently inhibits other professions expressing their opinions (Atwal, 1999). An example of effective collaborative working may be a patient who is to be discharged following an admission to hospital having suffered a severe stroke. The stroke affected his right side, leaving him with severe expressive and perceptive dysphasia. The Nurse in charge of the care and wellbeing of the patient would collaborate with other health care professionals, such as doctors, occupational therapists, physiotherapists and speech therapists In order to fully assess the level of care he may require on discharge, and provide a gradual return home. This would prove beneficial, since the patient has mobility and communication problems, so prior to discharge the patient will require physiotherapy, speech therapy and possible adaptations to the family home. Maintaining good professional relationships is imperative amongst not only other health care professionals, but also the patient and family members. (Molyneux 2001) In this example effective collaborating ultimately had a positive impact on the successful outcome, offering a good service to the patient involved. However, the ideal concept of effective collaboration is not always recognised. There is a vast array of literature which suggests that collaboration may not always have positive effects, and often Interpersonal conflict can sometimes occur, for a number of various reasons, some being old team members replaced by new team members, power issues, time management, funding and poor communication skills. Effective communication is a crucial ingredient in working collaboratively, and evidence suggests that poor patient care is often the result of lack of communication, and often results in the failure of high-quality services offered to patients (Stickley freshwater, 2006). To be able to demonstrate collaborative working, it is at times essential to be open minded and co-operate with changes in policies. So often the process of change is viewed as something which is negative and fearful. In practice, some changes are very welcomed, some are unavoidable, some must be endured and still othe rs are used to propel the individual towards something better. (Newson 2007) A difference of opinion might occur for example: in the case of lung cancer patient, doctors may perhaps wish to treat a lung cancer patient, regardless of the treatment being a success, and the course of action producing debilitating side effects whilst, nurses on the other hand may perhaps, consider the results of treatment to be so unbearable they far outweigh any benefit; this may perhaps result in situations becoming complicated. West and Slater (1996) expressed that a difference in priorities, between healthcare professionals could occasionally cause barriers in effective collaboration. It is believed that a nurse adopts a holistic approach to patient care, whereas a doctors approach towards a patient may be predominately medically (West and Slater, 1996). Over the year many strategies devised to overcome the problems presented in collaborative working have been suggested, yet they still have not obtained a solution to the continuing difficulties identified by the members experiencing them (Molyneux, 2001). In some cases the simple lack of clarifying responsibility, role expectations, accountability and poor communication can have a detrimental effect on patient care (Taylor, 1996). In order to construct a successful collaborative relationship it will require excellent communications skills. This allows the development of trust which in turn may benefit the patient in the holistic care they receive. As previously discussed there will always be factors which influence the outcome of working collaboratively in nursing, whether they are positive or adverse as long as the patients health remains the focus then in nursing we will progress. If however, communication is blurred then collaborative working may not be performed and this may reflect on the care the patient may receive. (Goodman Clemow, 2008). In conclusion despite the increased focus and determination of professional organisations and Governments the persistent difficulties in collaborative working is still extremely apparent and continuing DOH (2003). It is suggested that power inequalities, ideological differences and the recognition of the value of each team member are identified obstacles; the qualities required are apparent and widely discussed yet over the years collaboration still remains extremely problematic throughout the healthcare sector (Kenny 2005). The claim that collaboration is crucial to success is one that is echoed in the proverb that `two heads are better than one conversely it is also said that three is a crowd, however, in the instance of collaborative working, many professionals working collectively can generate new abilities, extensive knowledge and understanding. (Hughes, Hemmingway Smith, 2005). While collaboration is a popular method, and is being increasingly used in professional education, it seemingly uncontroversial concept it often is difficult to implement. Â  How does one successfully collaborate with individuals in other departments within the same organisation? Why it may be examined after all these years are the professionals not getting it right, it has been recognised by Department of Health that collaboration plays a critical part for individuals working within an organisation and government policies are increasingly aiming at improving current practices to the advantage of the patient (DOH, 2003). Alone we can do so little; together we can do so much. (Helen Keller in Jason Harvey 2010)

Cinematic Interpretation of Stepping Razor Red X: the Peter Tosh Story :: essays papers

Cinematic Interpretation of "Stepping Razor Red X": the Peter Tosh Story Films are designed for numerous purposes, some entertain, frighten, enlighten, educate, inspire, and most make us think about the world we live in. This paper will be focused on the cinematic interpretation of the film "Stepping Razor Red X", the Peter Tosh Story. The makers of a film from the writer, director, cinematographer and the art director, design, and conceptualize what they want the viewer to see. Movie makers have agendas. They get their ideas across by using cinematic techniques and styles which make us view a certain subject in the light that they put it in. I will discuss the differing techniques used by the makers of "Stepping Razor" and describe what the overall impression of the movie has on the viewer, and what the agenda of the director is. Genre "Genre: A group of films having recognizably similar plots, character types, settings, filmic techniques, and themes." (Konigsberg:165) The Genre of this film is difficult to define because it is not composed of a single agenda. The director makes a point of talking about Tosh’s life, but because of the cinematic themes and the film’s style it is not solely a documentary. This film is also a multimedia film because elements of music and concert footage are added to the essential plot. This film is avant-garde in it’s nature. "Avant-garde [refers to films that] deny the traditional narrative structure and techniques of commercial films by seeking to explore new modes of visual and emotional experience." (Konigsberg:25) It could be considered an anthology film, because of the various concert footage that is woven throughout the movie. "An Anthology film is a full length film made up of excerpts from other films which are related by some theme [or] the appearance of the same performer." (Konigsberg:16) "Stepping Razor" also has elements of Cinema Verite. "Cinema Verite†¦applies to a series of documentary films which strive for immediacy, spontaneity, and authenticity through the use of portable and unobtrusive equipment and the avoidance of and preconceived narrative line or concepts concerning the material." (Konigsberg:57) "Stepping Razor" may also be put under the category of art film. "Art film [is] a type of film with serious artistic intentions as distinct from the commercial films made in Hollywood."(Konigsberg:20) This film also has elements of a propaganda film. "Propaganda films [are] made with the intention of persuading the audience to a particular point of view concerning the subject†¦relying on the apparently real and factual nature of the images on the screen and often using an authoritative voice-over to sway.

Celtic Lifestyle :: European Europe History

Celtic Lifestyle During the period when the Celts existed, which is approximately 800 BC - 400 AD, they were just a little tribe compared to other large civilizations such as the Romans and Greeks. They still managed to conquer many regions and prove victorious in most of their battles. Who were these Celts that survived numerous struggles? Where did they originate? What kind of social structure did they have? What kinds of beliefs did they have? What sort of weapons and armor did they use in battle? What were some of their military tactics? These are some of the questions that will be evaluated in the following paragraphs. The Celts were tall, fair-skinned warriors who were well built, had blond hair and blue eyes. Some of them washed their hair in lime water to increase the hue of it. Some of them shaved their beards, but others let them grow long. Some also shaved their cheeks and let their moustaches grow so long that they would cover their mouth. While eating, they sat on wolves or dog skins. They ate at low tables, like the Chinese, and were served by young boys and girls. They cooked big quarters, usually from a pig or calf over a fire on a spit and the hero was served the biggest portion. Seeing as how the they were so aggressive and easy to anger, they often fought during meals or challenged each other to fights. The Celts lived in the Western region of Europe called the Normandy region. Normandy is a small region in the north of France, but they spread out from that region through all of France and Belgium. They also conquered areas in the western part of Germany, through the Black Forest region, along the Jura Mountains of Switzerland, along the Alps and to the upper part of Spain in the Pyrenees Mountains. They expanded their region to Spain and Portugal in 600 BC and through Italy, beyond the Alps in 386 BC. In 325 BC - 279 BC, they conquered areas throughout Greece, and in 278 BC they expanded into Asia Minor. But around 250 BC, the Romans regained their power in Italy and pushed the Celts back towards Gaul (modern day France) until 52 BC when the Romans, under command of Julius Caesar finally pushed them out of main land Europe and into England and then into Ireland, where the Celts fended themselves from any further attack from their southern and eastern neighbors.

The Diary of Anaïs Nin Essay -- Sexuality

Sex and desire. Few words evoke such complexity of meaning. For some, it is a sexual act. Whereas one might describe it as the sensual pleasure of two bodies fused into one being, another may define it as the fulfillment of animalistic desire, an unleashing of the beast. But, beyond an act charged with various meaning, it can also serve as an identity–heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, or transsexual. Whether act or identity, societal dictates define the norm and the deviant. Because of this, the artist who departs from the "acceptable" and embraces the "aberrant," arouses the consciousness of self and society. In doing so, sex and desire become a vehicle, a means of communication between artist and audience, and an object that demands our attention. Whether it is the subtle and sensual language of Anaà ¯s Nin in The Diary of Anaà ¯s Nin (1966), the coarse and explicit vocabulary of Henry Miller in Tropic of Cancer (1934), or the poetic and surrealistic prose of Djuna Barne s in Nightwood (1934), sex and desire, as a vehicle in the literature of these authors, exposes the chaos and confusion within their world and suggests the establishment of a new order for self and/or society. Written between 1931 and 1934, The Diary of Anaà ¯s Nin chronicles one artist’s psychological journey. Deserted by her father as a girl, Anaà ¯s experiences an â€Å"initial shock† that leaves her â€Å"like a shattered mirror† (Nin 103). The shards of glass, each developing a life of their own, come to be the â€Å"several selves† of Anaà ¯s (103). Through the pages of The Diary, reflecting upon and dissecting these various selves, she concludes, â€Å"one does not need to remain in bondage to the first wax imprint made on childhood sensibilities. One need not be branded by the fir... ...dea briefly has been to present a resurrection of the emotions, to depict the conduct of a human being in the stratosphere of ideas, that is, in the grip of delirium.† (243). As an artist, his task has been to â€Å"overthrow existing values, to make of the chaos about him an order which is his own, to sow strife and ferment so that by the emotional release those who are dead may be restored to life† (253). While there are those who might disagree with his methods, his language and vivid imagery not only awaken the conscious, but they also provide a much-needed dose of humor in Modernist literature. Works Cited Barnes, Djuna. Nightwood. New York: New Directions Books, 2006. Print. Miller, Henry. Tropic of Cancer. New York: Grove Press, 1961. Print. Nin, Anaà ¯s. The Diary of Anaà ¯s Nin: Volume One 1931-1934. San Diego: Swallow Press and Harcourt, 1966. Print.

Moses Mendelsohn and the Religious Enlightenment

â€Å"His life our standard, his teaching our light† Isaac Euchel wrote about Moses Mendelssohn. Moses was a model for Jews in Germany during the late 1770’s, and a dominant figure in the emergence of the Haskalah. The Haskalah borrowed many forms and categories from the already existing European Enlightenment, but its contents were largely derived from medieval Jewish philosophy and biblical exegesis. Within the novel, Moses Mendelssohn and the Religious Enlightenment, David Sorkin conveys how Moses made the German Enlightenment compatible with Judaism, and shows Moses to be a more consistent thinker than previously believed; his views on Judaism, natural laws, and natural rights developed early and remained consistent throughout his lifetime. Sorkin accounts Moses’ contributions to Jewish thought in three successive phases: philosophical, exegetical, and political. First, in the philosophical phase, Sorkin reveals the foundations of Moses’ thought. At an early age, Moses read the bible, memorized passages, studied Hebrew grammar, and wrote biblical poetry. All of these activates later were key in the Haskalah. In 1743, at fourteen, Moses moved to Berlin, which was at the center of the German Enlightenment, and theorist Christian Wolff was a dominating influence. Wolff’s focus was to natural theology, where he accounted that God's existence and attributes were the basis for theology and ethics. Influenced by Wolff, Moses sought to apply these Wolffian concepts to Judaism. Moses used his own version of Wolffian philosophy as a means to articulate his full belief in revealed religion. For example, he alluded that God was the source of all perfection and thus the source of metaphysics and natural theology. He thought that Enlightenment philosophy and Judaism complemented each other, and that philosophy served Judaism as an instrument of self-articulation. As a result, he began to write philosophical works in German, and Jewish works in Hebrew. Most important during the start of his career, he introduced a distinction between practical and theoretical in philosophy, which was also influenced by Wolff. Moses stressed a Jew’s primary obligation is â€Å"torah and good deeds†, not philosophical contemplation. To Moses, revelation set distinct limitation on theoretical knowledge, so he concentrated no practical knowledge, which was usually later seen in the form of commentary, since commentary was seen as the legitimate form through which truth is approached. Moses’ early Hebrew works were commentaries in which he attempted to renew the tradition of philosophy in Hebrew, again using ideas from Wolffian philosophy. His first work, The Kohelet Musar, was the first modern journal in Hebrew. Another subject he addresses is the concept of an ideal personality, which was in terms of ones individuals’ relationship to God and his fellowman. To Moses, the ideal is the â€Å"man of faith† who combines religious study, honest occupation, family, and trust in god. Also, in Moses’ early works, he argued the importance of the study of the Hebrew language and the bible. In a commentary on Maimonides’ Logical Terms, he insisted without Torah and tradition, we are â€Å"like a blind man in the dark†, and the true path to knowledge is the combination of torah and logic. Continuing the Wolffian beliefs, Moses asserted that although things might look accidental to man, to God they are all necessary. His early works such as The Kohelet Musar and Logical Terms were both commentaries that embodied Wolfian principles. However, The Book of the Soul, was different in the regard that it was a freestanding philosophical work that Moses withheld from publication. In Moses’ early works, Sorkin notes that the lack of any original content is significant. According to Sorkin, the conclusion of Moses’ philosophical career was with the Lavater affair in 1769-1770. By the end of the 1760’s, Moses’ philosophical position was established and would remain until the end of his life. He created a public dualism by publishing philosophical works in only German, and commentaries on Jewish subject in Hebrew. The Lavater affair contested Moses to support all of his fundamental ideas. Johann Caspar Lavater, a Swiss Protestant pastor infamously challenged Moses to refute the arguments of the theologian, Charles Bonnet, or convert to Christianity, which Lavater referred as a â€Å"Golden Bridge† to Christianity. However, this posed a public challenge to Moses as a philosopher and as a Jew. In response, Moses publically defended toleration on religious and philosophical grounds, but in private, he wrote counterattacks and criticized Christianity. This task was not simple, and he again used Wolffian principles help justify that Judaism was in perfect harmony with natural religion and reason. Sorkin interprets that Moses drove Lavater to end the affair, and made him isolate from the public, and Sorkin named this â€Å"the triumph of toleration†. Although Moses overcame Lavater, the affair also had grave consequences on Moses personally; the affair aggravated his physical and psychological condition. He was a hunchback, and developed a nervous debility, which was linked to his deformity, prevented abstract thinking and grew much worse during this Lavater affair. The next period of Moses’ career, Sorkin names Exegesis, where he focused on making the bible vital to the Haskalah. First, Moses created a commentary on Ecclesiastes that is part of â€Å"wisdom literature,† and thus was able to reiterate his preference of practical knowledge. He constructed a defense of Jewish exegesis on the basis of language, and strived to show how there are multiple meanings, which are reasonable. He said, â€Å"there are four methods of interpreting our holy torah-the literal, homiletical, allegorical, and esteric†, proving that words can bear multiple intentions. Also, in his commentary, Moses introduced divisions that did not follow the traditional chapters and verses in the bible, because he argued that traditional divisions were intended for the â€Å"convenience of the reader†. Another interesting aspect Moses brought up in Ecclesiastes, was that the idea that truth was universal and neutral, whatever its origins, meaning he deemed it permissible to use non-Jewish exegesis. Lastly, in this commentary, language was of importance because Moses used German translations in Hebrew characters, giving equivalents with entire sentence. Sorkin believes he did this to him, Hebrew was the ideal medium for the spread of the practical knowledge, in which laid the essence of Judaism. This Ecclesiastes commentary placed him at the head of the Haskalah’s efforts to revive biblical exegesis. Next, Moses worked for thirteen years on his translation on the Psalms, with the goal of producing an exegesis document of natural religion, translated in German, and would be source of practical knowledge for Jews and Christians. Sorkin brings attention to how Moses uses the term â€Å"edification† in reference to the Psalms, which emphasizes his desire for an exegesis that would encourage universal religiosity. In the Psalms, Moses asserts that the sublime is a form of art, and the highest form of beauty. Moses thus disagrees with the idea that God is â€Å"the most sublime being† because he believed that the sublime was not natural, but artistic, existing as a human creation. Furthermore, he affirms that the sublime’s aesthetic impact is admiration, and its spiritual impact is edification. Unfortunately, the translation of the Psalms was only a success among the Jews, and others stated that, â€Å"nothing could be further from the truth. † Sorkin viewed this as a confirmation that Moses’ best medium is commentary, not translation. During the same thirteen years that Moses translated the Psalms, he also translated, commented, and wrote an extensive introduction to the Pentateuch, titled Book of the Paths to Peace. This translation aimed to convey a literal meaning of the text through a fluent German translation. While Moses remained the key contributor, he had four Maskilim participate, and this made a shift in the Haskalah. This book is divided into three themes: practical knowledge, literal meaning, and the use of history. In the first part of the Book of Paths to Peace, Moses viewed the Pentateuch as the primary source of practical knowledge for the Jews. Sorkin noticed he repeatedly argues â€Å"virtue must be made into a â€Å"second nature† by the continual exercise of moral judgment. Moses asserted that compared to the rest of humanity Israel had a special role, because those who reside in there all â€Å"believe† and the bible is a handbook of practical knowledge. Also, in the Pentateuch, Moses wrote â€Å"man is by nature and social and will not achieve success without help from others of his kind†. Interesting, Moses stressed that God created everything, and he that he is beyond nature, and thus â€Å"science† had no place in a commentary on Creation, which further showed his resistance to theoretical knowledge. Sorkin again demonstrated how Moses kept consistent in his views, since practical knowledge already played in other works. The next portion emphasized the literal meaning as the focus of exegesis. Due to the bible being the primary source of practical knowledge, the need to make its literal meaning known was vital for Moses. His basic premise was that the Bible had a unique oral quality that made it the most effective means of transmitting practical knowledge. He stressed the importance of grammar, and believed only with knowledge of grammar, does Gods’ word both literal and homiletical make sense, because grammar is essential to the tradition of Jewish scriptural transmission. It is this tradition that prevents the Jews from being â€Å"like a blind man in the dark,† and Sorkin points out that Moses used the same metaphor here as he did with Logical Terms. Moses believed that due to the structure of biblical poetry, that it was the most successful method for teaching practical knowledge. The last portion of the Book of the Paths to Peace, Moses established and defended his belief in Judaism through history. History helped establish Moses’ faith. Sorkin alluded that Moses was historical without being historicist, because he recognized history in the Pentateuch rather than the Pentateuch as a product of history. Sorkin notes that viewing history in this fashion was integral to the Haskalah and typical of the religious enlightenment. The Book of the Paths to Peace eventually had wide acceptance, even though some attacked the book. The book was meant to instruct Jewish youth, but since Moses used complex German, it forced students to concentrate on that language instead of the contents. Lastly, The final phase Sorkin accounts for in Moses’ life is his political activism. Moses was politically involved almost his entire career as a thinker and writer. Now, he focused on the state and individual rights from the viewpoint of a Jew living in hardships. Continuing the Wolffian philosophy, he emphasized a politics based on ideas of natural rights to promote legal equality. Initially, Moses arrived in the political arena by being an intercessor. Sorkin found this unsurprising since Moses was a philosopher and writer. Communities sought Moses in times of conflict, and usually Moses’ intercession was successful. For example, the Duke in the community of Mecklenburg prohibited the Jewish practice of early burial. Moses was asked to help, so he served as an intercessor, and the duke granted the Jews the privilege of religious liberty. However, Moses took this matter further, by trying to renew the ritual practice, just as he tried to renew the traditions of philosophy and exegesis. In 1777, Moses transitioned from the politics of intercession to the politics of emancipation, when he responded to the community of Dresden’s problem of Jew’s facing high taxation or expulsion. Moses’ letter asserted that Jews were being excluded from society because of their religion. His work, The Ritual Laws of the Jews was seen as an integral part of his Jewish thought, and referred to as a handbook on practical knowledge. Later, Moses took on dealing with Jewish rights. Sorkin implies that Moses’ advocacy of rights was fundamentally new, yet there was also substantial continuity with his earlier thought. Moses demonstrated that history plays an even more important role in his political thinking than in his biblical exegesis since human liberties were the issue rather than divine work. In order to understand Jews’ situation in terms of rights, Moses translated Rousseau’s Discourse. Moses maintained a balance between individual rights and absolutist state, and asked Christian Wilhelm Dohm to write a tract advocating emancipation of the Jews, and it was widely influential. Moses wrote an elaborate preface to the translation of Rousseau’s Discourse, which was divided into three parts, and titled Vindiciae Judaeorum. In the preface, it was the first time he publicly advocated â€Å"civic acceptance† or equal rights. An occurring theme in the preface was Moses expressing what he did not agree with Dohm’s memorandum, specifically with Dohm’s ban of excommunication. Moses deemed that religious excommunication invaded on civil rights because it involved the political authorities. Since he denied religion’s right to excommunicate, he was set apart from the mainstream of that scholarship. A month after he published Vindiciae Judaeorum, he also published his translation of the Psalms. The Psalms received little attention, while Vindiciae had a huge impact. A pamphlet appeared criticizing Moses’ work, but it was published as a famous Austrian statesman in order to be taken seriously, but truly, a minor writer August Cranz wrote it. Cranz posed more of a challenge to Moses’ faith than the Lavater’s affair; Moses had to realize that Christianity was the true religion and prepare to convert or admit Judaism was imperfect and in need of fundamental reform. Moses reacted to Cranz’s pamphlet by creating Jerusalem, or On Religious Power and Judaism, which Sorkin views as Moses’ fullest elaboration of his views on rights and the nature of Judaism. Jerusalem is divided into two parts; part one addresses Cranz’ contention that in â€Å"repudiating the ban of excommunication, he had repudiated Judaism. Moses argues mainly on the basis of natural rights. Moses’ theory of church and state is rooted in his idea of benevolence. He thought the best state was one whose members were able to govern themselves through education, and the institution capable of providing such education was religion. Moses also went back to Wolffian principle of metaphysics by asserting that liberty of conscience was crucial for the achievement of man’s eternal vocation. In part two, Moses addressed Cranz’s view that Moses left Judaism, and abandoned religion altogether. Moses answered using philosophical views, and switched between his exposition of Judaism and a digression of a specific subject to advance his argument, and to continue his method of writing German philosophy in German, and Judaism in Hebrew. He argued on the basis of revealed legislation. He stated that Judaism is a religion of revealed legislation, not of revealed beliefs. He asserted that only through a second revelation, comparable to the one at Sinai, could God establish the authority necessary to introduce changes into the practice of the law. The two parts of Jerusalem, fit closely together, since many of the themes developed in part one are discussed in part two. To conclude Sorkin’s argument, Moses was a traditional Jewish figure who sought to renew traditional philosophy and Biblical exegesis in Hebrew. Sorkin successfully displayed how Moses made the German Enlightenment compatible with the Haskalah, and stayed constant with his philosophy throughout his life. It is only normal that after reading Sorkin’s Moses Mendelssohn and the Religious Enlightenment that certain parts were more striking than others. Not only are certain aspects of the book especially intriguing, but also, I do not agree with certain theories that Moses posed. Also, I cannot help but compare the Haskalah to the European Enlightenment that preceded it. First, it is miraculous how one person can make a difference in others lives. Moses lived during a time where Jewish communities were suffering from not having equal rights in society. Jews were denied education, certain occupations, citizen status, and were the first ones to be held responsible for problems or crimes. The fact that Moses, with his short stature and hunchback, still had the confidence and ability to make reforms in society is unbelievable. Sorkin only mentioned Moses’ deformity once, and it is of graver importance than that. People who are blessed without any deformities take for granted how easy their life is, and I believe that more acknowledgements should be given to Moses for enduring such a struggle. Also, in Sorkin’s reference to Moses’ deformity, he also mentioned a nervous debility that was linked to his abnormality, which prevented conceptual thinking, and grew worse after the Lavater affair. The fact that this was only mentioned once, and in one quick sentence gives the impression that this was not a serious issue. However, if such a physiological condition occurred in Moses, one would think that since all of his works entailed abstract thinking, since he was a philosopher, that this would have severe consequences on his career. Yet, Moses was able to produce numerous works after the Lavater affair and many of them were highly praised. It makes one speculate, if Sorkin’s information about Moses’ nervous disability is completely accurate. Another part of the book that caught my attention was the aftermath of Christian Wilhelm Dohm’s publication of On the Civic Amelioration of the Jews, even though he was doing Moses a favor by writing it, and it provoked a major debate that made the rights of Jews a public issue, which is what Moses wanted. However, Sorkin displayed many aspects that Moses did not agree with what Christian wrote. For instance, Moses took issue with the notion that artisanry and farming are the sole sources of wealth, and with the ban of excommunication. Moses affirmed that no one could legitimately claim to exercise authority over another’s belief. Sorkin’s writing gave the impression that Moses was angry with Christian for putting certain beliefs in writing. This caught me by surprise because I was under the impression that Christian and Moses were good friends. The fact that Christian agreed to write this document, even though Moses was asked to write it, implied that they were in agreement with what was to be written. The way that Sorkin addressed this conflict in the book further suggests that Christian went against what Moses asked of him, and used this as an opportunity to voice his own opinions on the issue of Jewish emancipation. Furthermore, in a way, one can view Christian as being a catalyst for Cranz’s challenge. The connection is that Christian published work that Moses felt the need to counter in Vindiciae Judaeorum, and thus gave rise to Cranz challenging Moses. Additionally, I discovered that certain areas in the book negated Moses’ entire goal of the Haskalah. First, it is important to recall that prior to the rise of the Haskalah, most Christian thinkers thought Judaism was an irrational dark religion that did not allow for the age of Enlightenment. Hence gave rise to the premise that Jews were incapable of reaching such intellectual levels. Interestingly, Sorkin and Moses both acted in ways that confirm this idea. First, Moses published philosophy in German and commentaries in Hebrew. This action can be seen as if he was making it harder for Jews to reach an enlightened state. By publishing philosophy in German, which most Jews could not read, he further separated them from society. Also, not only were his philosophical works in German, but also they were in such a high level of German, that was very rare for a Jew to be able to write at this level. This also made it harder for Jews to understand his German works. Another instance is seen when the translation of the Psalms was only a victory among the Jews, and while non-Jews stated, â€Å"nothing could be further from the truth. † Sorkin viewed this as a confirmation that Mendelssohn’s best medium is commentary, not translation. Two things are happening in this situation. First, the reaction from society demonstrates that indeed the Jews are not as intelligent as the non-Jews because they thought Moses’ commentary was brilliant, when the majority of the population thought it was not legitimate to be a valid translation. Second, Sorkin’s account that Moses’ best means is commentary, shows that Sorkin is agreeing with the statement that his translation did not contain enough truth, thus putting Moses in the category of not being able to obtain enlightened thought. Next, in comparison to the European Enlightenment, the Haskalah is very different, even though it emerged because of the Enlightenment. The European Enlightenment held faith in the power of human reason to illuminate the world, rather than divine revelation. It encouraged an attitude of critical reflection, rather than an acceptance of received wisdom. Also, the Enlightenment was in sync with the Scientific Revolution in the early 1770’s and created the concept that science is a form of knowledge (Western Civilizations). In contrast, Moses affirmed that the best state was one whose members were able to govern themselves through education, and it was through religious institutions that are most capable of providing such education. This thinking is completely opposite of the Enlightenment, because their goal was to forget about religious teachings, and only learn from science, and other forms of confirmed reason. Another example that is contrasted to the Enlightenment is when Moses pleaded that a general disquisition on â€Å"science† had no place in a commentary on Creation. Members of the Enlightenment used the theory of evolution to explain the creation of the universe, which is all based on science. Also, using Wolffian beliefs, Mendelssohn asserted that although things might look accidental to man, to God they are all necessary, implying that everything on Earth happens for a reason. Again, this is not in accord with the Enlightenment philosophy because they do not refer to a God creating the future of the world, instead they sought evidence and valid truths to prove their beliefs that all is created through science and man labor. Interestingly, there are similarities between Moses Mendelssohn and Immanuel Kant, who was a key figure of the European Enlightenment. Moses became a member of Wednesday Society, which was devoted to political subjects. He often gave lectures; his most common lecture was â€Å"What is enlightenment? Similarly, Immanuel Kant became known by answering the question: What is Enlightenment? † written as a response to the Reverend Zollner. Kant also proposed to eliminate certain church and state restrictions, just as Moses did in Jerusalem. Although a huge difference is Kant believed religion infringed on one’s ability to full reason, while Moses saw religion, specifically Judaism as an integral part of the Haskalah, it is important to notice the comparisons between the two, especially since they are regarded as holding such different ideologies (Perspectives on the Past). Overall, Moses Mendelssohn was a principal figure in the creation of the Haskalah. He was a model Jew, and made many contributions to Jewish life during the end of the eighteenth century. After reading the novel, Moses Mendelssohn and the Religious Enlightenment, I now have a better understanding and respect for Moses Mendelssohn and the Haskalah. David Sorkin succeeded in providing information that accurately describes Moses’ philosophical works and showed how Moses made the German Enlightenment compatible with Judaism.

General Electric

Factors affecting Demand of Pepsi( Cold drink) (1)Changes in the Price (2)Changes in consumers’ Income spent on goods and services (3)Changes in the Tastes/Preferences of consumers for goods/services (4)Changes in the Prices of related goods and services: Substitutes and Complements 5) changes in interest rates and the general availability of credit. Many households finance consumption through borrowing. If interest rates rise, demand contracts for many goods and services; particularly housing. 6) Natural disasters (storms, hurricanes, earthquakes, tornadoes, floods etc) ) Advertising can have a market effect on demand. Indeed, producers of PEPSI that are close substitutes generally spend large amounts on advertising, reminding consumers that their product is †better† than the opposition's product. (Whether or not this is reality true, of course is another matter). 8) Seasonal changes. For example, demand for Cold drinks rises in warmer weather, and falls in the co lder months of the year. If price only changes, the demand curve for a good or service will not shift. Instead, there will be a movement along the demand curve.If price rises, demand will contract; less will be purchased in a given period of time. If price falls, demand will expand, and more will be bought in a given period of time. The demand curve will shift to the left or right, if other factors, other from price, change. Factors Affecting Supply Of a Product . * Expectation of future price * When producers expect higher prices in the future commodities, the tendency is to keep their goods and release them when the price rises. * ? Change in the price of related goods * Changes in the price of goods have a significant effect in the supply of such goods. Government subsidies * Subsidies or the financial aids/assistance given by the government reduces cost of production which encourages more supply. * Number of firms in the market * An increase in the number of firms in the market leads to an increase in supply of goods and services. Nature of elasticity in terms of Income The degree to which a demand for a good changes with respect to a change in income depends on whether the good is a necessity or a luxury. The demand for necessities will increase with income, but at a slower rate.This is because consumers, instead of buying more of only the necessity, will want to use their increased income to buy more of a luxury. During a period of increasing income, demand for luxury products tends to increase at a higher rate than the demand for necessities. Nature of elasticity in terms of Price Price elasticity of supply measures the relationship between change in quantity supplied and a change in price. If supply is elastic, producers can increase output without a rise in cost or a time delay If supply is inelastic, firms find it hard to change production in a given time period. Major competitors ;Type of market (structure) it competes in (give reasons as to your op inion) Major Competitor is COCA COLA and all other different Soft drinks made locally It competes in many products as compare to Coca cola its products are * Aquafina * Pepsi * Mountain Dew * Sierra Mist * Sobe * Lipton Brisk Tea * MUG Root Beer * Slice * Gatorade * Dole Juice * Tropicana Pepsi is purely a Monopoly One seller dominates the market with no close substitutes. Natural Monopoly – efficient production by a single supplier PRICING STRATEGY OF â€Å"PEPSI† In Pakistan Pepsi cola is being operated by Pakistan Beverages.Pepsi is available in the majority of  stores, outlets, restaurants, and hotels. It has a huge market of customers. Basically it is segmented for theyounger generation of Pakistan but because of its customized offerings it is being consumed by differentage groups in our society. The company has offered Pepsi in different quantities and prices in our market. Its market oriented statement is â€Å"Dare for more†Ã‚   PRICES QUANTITY 12 Rs25 0ml 20Rs 300ml 20 Rs500ml 40Rs1. 5 lit 55 Rs2. 25 lit. In our society Pepsi often reduces its prices during the holy month of Ramadan and at the time of Eid.In this way they adopt promotional pricing strategy. Even if you notice on their offerings they are using  product-line pricing strategy as they are offering different quantities with different amount of money. Indifferent sectors Pepsi have also adopted segmented pricing strategy as its prices are much higher in luxurious hotels and other sectors. Its main competitor is Coca-cola when it comes to soft-drinks. Coca-cola have also made various efforts through different pricing strategies and offerings but Pepsi have alsoresponded effectively towards their actions through initiating price cuts at the right time for example.In the month of Ramadan whenever Coca-cola reduces their prices Pepsi also responds through price cuts and then eventually after that period it rises its prices. However buyer’s reactions have not been much affected the company in the long-run. Pepsi have always operated their sales through promotional and  phsycological pricing strategy and the great example for this can be their recently offered deal which is 2. 25 litre in 50 Rs.